![]() ![]() Each of these assumptions is questioned in turn. Despite frequent concerns, by and large, the field of cross-cultural studies has been developing under the -Hofstedean‖ paradigm that is based on the following four assumptions: i) Culture is the cause, not the effect, ii) Geographic boundaries are appropriate for clustering cultures, iii) Matched samples should be used to study cultural differences, and iv) The ecological fallacy consistently prevents cross-level inference. According to the Web of Science, the book has been cited almost five thousand times, and the figures are twice that based on Google Scholar, with hundreds of citations annually even decades after the book was first published. Where are we now in cross-cultural studies? The beginning of the cross-cultural era in social sciences can be traced back to Hofstede's (1980) -Culture's Consequences.‖ Although models of value structure had been offered earlier (e.g., The impact of Hofstede's -Culture's Consequences‖ is indisputable. We also discuss implications of our findings and offer directions for future cross-cultural research. Our findings provide a basis for an analysis of cultural change and highlight yet again the problem of assuming the extreme stability of national cultures and the limitations of relying on geographical boundaries when studying cultures. We also show that the strength and direction of some of the relationships are moderated by country characteristics. Based on the results of a multi-level multivariate meta-analysis, we show that personal cultural values and national cultures are likely to be shaped by a variety of individual and country level factors. Culture has been shown to affect virtually every aspect of social and organizational life (e.g., The purpose of the present study is to explain the causes and nature of within and between-country variations in culture, and so we shift the focus from culture's consequence to culture as a consequence. Keywords: Culture, Explaining culture, Cultural change, Meta-analysis, HLM Article: Over the last several decades, culture's consequences have received an explosion of interest in fields ranging from psychology and education to accounting and marketing. Also, up to 90% of the variance in cultural values is found to reside within countries, stressing that national averages poorly represent specific individuals. This provides a basis for explaining cultural change, both at the individual and national levels. The findings indicate that national and individual cultural values may be determined by the micro characteristics of age, gender, education, and socio-economic status as well as the macro characteristics of wealth and freedom. To answer these questions, we use a multi-level multivariate meta-analysis of 508 studies. Addressing this, we explore what factors are related to and potentially shape culture, what explains cultural variations within countries, and what the relationship is between cultural values at the individual and national levels. Abstract: Culture as a consequence is a neglected topic.
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